The old organs of political power in the tu and tuan (i.e., the district and the township), and especially at the tu level, just below the county level, used to be almost exclusively in the hands of the local tyrants and evil gentry.

• 旧式的都团（即区乡）政权机关，尤其是都之一级，即接近县之一级，几乎完全是土豪劣绅占领。